WHY DO TEACHERS ALWAYS GIVE US EXAMS?
There are three purposes of classroom assessment. These are assessment for learning, assessment of learning and assessment as learning.
ASSESSMENT FOR LEARNING includes three types of assessment done before and during instruction. Under this we have placement, formative and diagnostic assessments.
Placement assessment is done prior to instruction. From the term itself, it can be deduced that placement assessments are done to know where to "put" the students.
A good example of a placement assessment is entrance examinations. Entrance examinations in schools, colleges and universities determine whether to "place" aspirants in the school or out of the school.
The purpose of placement assessments is to assess the needs of the learners to have basis in planning for a relevant instruction. Teachers use this assessment to know what their students are bringing into the learning situation and use this as a starting point for instruction.
The results of this assessment place students in specific learning groups to facilitate teaching and learning.
Formative assessment is done during instruction. Say, Teacher A planned for a two-day lesson about adjectives. In the first day, he administered an assessment to see how the students are doing. What she did is a formative assessment.
It is this assessment where teachers continuously monitor the students' level of attainment of the learning objectives (Stiggins, 2005). The results of the assessment are communicated clearly and promptly to the students for them to know their strengths and weaknesses and the progress of their learning.
Diagnostic assessment is done during instruction. Say, Teacher B noticed that his students don't seem to understand his lesson about adjectives. She conducted an assessment to see where the students' weaknesses lie.
Diagnostic assessment is used to determine students' recurring or persistent difficulties. It searches for the underlying causes of students' learning problems that do not respond to first aid treatment. It helps formulate a plan detailed remedial instruction.
ASSESSMENT OF LEARNING is done after instruction. This is usually referred to as summative assessment.
Summative assessment is used to certify what students know and can do and the level of their proficiency or competency. Its results reveal whether or no instructions have successfully achieved the curriculum outcomes.
The information from assessment of learning is usually expressed as marks or letter grades. The results of which are communicated to the students, parents and other stakeholders for decision making.
It is also a powerful factor that could pave the way for educational reforms.
ASSESSMENT AS LEARNING is done for teachers to understand and perform well their role of assessing FOR and OF learning. It requires teachers to undergo training on how to assess learning and be equipped with the following competencies needed in performing their work as assessors.
Showing posts with label Professional Education. Show all posts
Showing posts with label Professional Education. Show all posts
Teachers Take Note of the Major Paradigm Shifts in Education
1. Learner-Centered and Learner-Oriented Curriculum
There has been a change in the role of the teacher in the teaching-learning process. Before, teachers are the sole sources of knowledge. However, due to the advent of technology and the conceptualization of the idea that learners have innate potentials, teachers are now facilitators and motivators of learning.
Learners are no more selected using a single or fixed criteria. Due to the advent of the idea that every child is special in his own way (the multiple intelligence and learner diversity theories), it is no a well-established fact that student selection should be more open and that multiple standards be taken into account. Different learners have different interests and preferences.
Before there is what's called a prescribed pedagogy which applies across all learners. Now, many different teaching styles are are employed, respecting the learners' uniqueness of intelligence, motivations, needs and situations.
2. Contextualize-Learning
Pre-organized subject matters are changed to contextualize themes. These themes are generated from the global realities and the culture that is relevant, meaningful and useful to the learners.
Knowledge limited to the local scene is changed. It is broadened to encompass globalized knowledge, values, attitudes and skills interfaced with local wisdom.
Traditional pedagogues are also discouraged. This is to give way to modern strategies of teaching and learning.with the freedom to use mixed modes of instruction and more interactive technology.
3. A Holistic Integrated Approach to Education
Before, knowledge is the only learning outcome sought in the classrooms. Now, education also aims the development of values and attitudes, skills and competencies, not through classroom instruction alone but the entire school culture and atmosphere. Its vision and mission, co-curricular activities and the human climate are established by the relationship existing therein.
There has been a change from a knowledge-dominated curriculum to more attention being given to values education and emotional learning. The heart of education is the education of the heart.
Rigid subject matter boundaries were felled and interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary approaches to problems and issues were founded.
4. Lifelong Education For All
Limited access to education is now discouraged. The society is given the chance to learn borderlessly, with the boundaries of time or space.
There has been a change in the role of the teacher in the teaching-learning process. Before, teachers are the sole sources of knowledge. However, due to the advent of technology and the conceptualization of the idea that learners have innate potentials, teachers are now facilitators and motivators of learning.
Learners are no more selected using a single or fixed criteria. Due to the advent of the idea that every child is special in his own way (the multiple intelligence and learner diversity theories), it is no a well-established fact that student selection should be more open and that multiple standards be taken into account. Different learners have different interests and preferences.
Before there is what's called a prescribed pedagogy which applies across all learners. Now, many different teaching styles are are employed, respecting the learners' uniqueness of intelligence, motivations, needs and situations.
2. Contextualize-Learning
Pre-organized subject matters are changed to contextualize themes. These themes are generated from the global realities and the culture that is relevant, meaningful and useful to the learners.
Knowledge limited to the local scene is changed. It is broadened to encompass globalized knowledge, values, attitudes and skills interfaced with local wisdom.
Traditional pedagogues are also discouraged. This is to give way to modern strategies of teaching and learning.with the freedom to use mixed modes of instruction and more interactive technology.
3. A Holistic Integrated Approach to Education
Before, knowledge is the only learning outcome sought in the classrooms. Now, education also aims the development of values and attitudes, skills and competencies, not through classroom instruction alone but the entire school culture and atmosphere. Its vision and mission, co-curricular activities and the human climate are established by the relationship existing therein.
There has been a change from a knowledge-dominated curriculum to more attention being given to values education and emotional learning. The heart of education is the education of the heart.
Rigid subject matter boundaries were felled and interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary approaches to problems and issues were founded.
4. Lifelong Education For All
Limited access to education is now discouraged. The society is given the chance to learn borderlessly, with the boundaries of time or space.
A Brief Discussion on Operant Conditioning for Teachers
Operant Conditioning or Instrumental Conditioning is a type of learning in which a learner's behavior is shaped and affected by reinforcements are punishments.
Burrhus Frederic Skinner or B.F. Skinner is not the first person to discover this type of learning. It was Jerzy Konorski. However, B.F. Skinner is the one who popularized this with his experiments with pigeons and rats.
To understand Operant Conditioning, one must be familiar with different terms related to this type of learning. Here's where a lot of misconceptions are made, especially between negative reinforcement and punishment.
Reinforcement is a consequence of an action that causes the behavior to occur with greater frequency.
Examples of reinforcement:
1. Teacher A gave a student a book for topping the final examination.
2. Teacher B told her students, "Since you cleaned the room without me asking you to do so, I am now removing the restriction in using the TV until 4:00 this afternoon."
Punishment is a consequence of an action that causes the behavior to occur with less frequency.
Examples of punishment:
1. Teacher C made the first group of students clean the comfort room because of breaking the television.
2. Teacher D lessened the morning snack time from 15 minutes to 10 minutes because his students were late for his class.
Positive is a insertion or a delivery of a stimulus after a response.
Negative is a deletion or a removal of a stimulus after a response.
Positive reinforcement, also known as only reinforcement, is the insertion or a delivery of a favorable condition (for the learners) to make a desired behavior occur more frequently. An example of a positive reinforcement is when Teacher E gave an additional point for a student who honestly declared his error in the test paper.
In B.F. Skinner's Box Experiment, the rat in the cage received a pellet of sugar for each instance that it pulled a lever. It was observed that because of such system of reinforcement, the rat pulled the lever very frequently.
Negative reinforcement, also known as escape, is the deletion or a removal of a unfavorable condition (for the learners) to make a desired behavior occur more frequently. An example of a negative reinforcement is when Teacher F removed a quiz for tomorrow because of the students' initiative to clean the room without having ordered to do so.
In B.F. Skinner's Box Experiment, a loud, sharp noise is played towards a rat in the cage. The rat noticed that every time it stepped on a lever, the noise died out. Due to such system, the rat stepped on the lever very frequently.
Positive punishment, also knows as only punishment, is the insertion or delivery of an unfavorable condition (for the learners) to make a undesired behavior occur less frequently. An example of positive punishment is when Teacher G commanded a student to pick up the pieces of paper in the classroom for being noisy during the discussion.
In B.F. Skinner's Box Experiment, an electric shock is given to a rat in a cage whenever it gets near to certain items in it. Because of this, it seldom got near to such items.
Negative punishment, also known as penalty, is the removal or deletion of a favorable condition (for the learners) to make an undesired behavior occur less frequently. An example of a negative punishment is when Teacher H lessened the snack time from 15 minutes to 10 minutes because they were late.
Remember, positive reinforcement is used by adding a favorable condition to sustain a desirable behavior. Negative reinforcement is used by removing an unfavorable condition to sustain a desirable behavior. Positive punishment is used by adding an unfavorable condition to cut off an undesirable behavior. Negative punishment is used by removing a favorable condition to cut off an undesirable behavior.
Burrhus Frederic Skinner or B.F. Skinner is not the first person to discover this type of learning. It was Jerzy Konorski. However, B.F. Skinner is the one who popularized this with his experiments with pigeons and rats.
To understand Operant Conditioning, one must be familiar with different terms related to this type of learning. Here's where a lot of misconceptions are made, especially between negative reinforcement and punishment.
Reinforcement is a consequence of an action that causes the behavior to occur with greater frequency.
Examples of reinforcement:
1. Teacher A gave a student a book for topping the final examination.
2. Teacher B told her students, "Since you cleaned the room without me asking you to do so, I am now removing the restriction in using the TV until 4:00 this afternoon."
Punishment is a consequence of an action that causes the behavior to occur with less frequency.
Examples of punishment:
1. Teacher C made the first group of students clean the comfort room because of breaking the television.
2. Teacher D lessened the morning snack time from 15 minutes to 10 minutes because his students were late for his class.
Positive is a insertion or a delivery of a stimulus after a response.
Negative is a deletion or a removal of a stimulus after a response.
Positive reinforcement, also known as only reinforcement, is the insertion or a delivery of a favorable condition (for the learners) to make a desired behavior occur more frequently. An example of a positive reinforcement is when Teacher E gave an additional point for a student who honestly declared his error in the test paper.
In B.F. Skinner's Box Experiment, the rat in the cage received a pellet of sugar for each instance that it pulled a lever. It was observed that because of such system of reinforcement, the rat pulled the lever very frequently.
Negative reinforcement, also known as escape, is the deletion or a removal of a unfavorable condition (for the learners) to make a desired behavior occur more frequently. An example of a negative reinforcement is when Teacher F removed a quiz for tomorrow because of the students' initiative to clean the room without having ordered to do so.
In B.F. Skinner's Box Experiment, a loud, sharp noise is played towards a rat in the cage. The rat noticed that every time it stepped on a lever, the noise died out. Due to such system, the rat stepped on the lever very frequently.
Positive punishment, also knows as only punishment, is the insertion or delivery of an unfavorable condition (for the learners) to make a undesired behavior occur less frequently. An example of positive punishment is when Teacher G commanded a student to pick up the pieces of paper in the classroom for being noisy during the discussion.
In B.F. Skinner's Box Experiment, an electric shock is given to a rat in a cage whenever it gets near to certain items in it. Because of this, it seldom got near to such items.
Negative punishment, also known as penalty, is the removal or deletion of a favorable condition (for the learners) to make an undesired behavior occur less frequently. An example of a negative punishment is when Teacher H lessened the snack time from 15 minutes to 10 minutes because they were late.
Remember, positive reinforcement is used by adding a favorable condition to sustain a desirable behavior. Negative reinforcement is used by removing an unfavorable condition to sustain a desirable behavior. Positive punishment is used by adding an unfavorable condition to cut off an undesirable behavior. Negative punishment is used by removing a favorable condition to cut off an undesirable behavior.
Guidelines for Teachers in Effectively Administering Exams
Teachers
are facilitators of learning. This is a progressive view that teachers must
take necessary steps to make learning and assessment easy for the learners.
Examination
is the tool of the teacher to gauge the learners' understanding and mastery of
the subject matter in a specific period of time. It is used to measure how well
the students understand the lessons, how far has the students gone in terms of
mastery, how effective the teaching methods, strategies
and techniques used by the teacher are and what improvements should be
made to better the teaching-learning process.
Examinations
are inevitably essential tools for learning. This is why teachers should keep in
mind the basic things to consider in conducting an examination.
Last time
we had GUIDELINES IN ARRANGING TEST ITEMS; now, let's have GUIDELINES IN
ADMINISTERING TESTS.
Examinations require the workings of the mind and John Locke said that a sound mind should be in a sound body. Of course, he said this to encourage physical activities in curriculum but this could also be used to argue that examinations should be done in a conducive environment.
Teachers should bear in mind that distractions can lessen the reliability and validity of an examination. This could lead the students to lose focus or could give them the chance to cheat. Either way is not good.
An examination should be conducted in a classroom where students could comfortable sit and think. It should be away from unnecessary noise.
2. Anticipate questions that students may ask.
Examinations should be perfect but if nobody's perfect, how can a piece of paper be? Yes, teachers should always try to make their assessment tools (exams & tests) perfect but they should also try to expect what questions might the students ask about.
Before the disseminating the papers, the teacher must clarify everything.
3 . Set a proper atmosphere for testing.
Setting a proper atmosphere for testing could be confused with providing it in a quiet and comfortable setting. Yes it could but atmosphere here refers to non other than the school's and the students' atmosphere. Conducting an examination during a time when there are many activities in the school where the students are involved in could lessen the validity and reliability of an examination. Also, conducting a surprise major examination would not be a very good idea.
Teachers should announce the major examination ahead of time to set the students' mind ready. Having prepared, the students' atmosphere would be proper enough to conduct testing.
4. Help students keep track of time.
The students are under pressure during examinations and they are most likely to forget that time is ticking away. It would be of great help for them if the teacher informs them how much time they still have but overdoing it would only put more pressure in them.
5. Implement established cheating rules.
Established cheating rules should be implemented during the exam. The students have to see this. If someone was caught cheating and sanctions were not implemented, it could lead to two things: the students will lose their trust and respect and they will worsen cheating.
6. Discourage cheating.
Yes, anyone can say "hadn't you cheated when you were in college and the answer could be affirmative but still, teachers must discourage cheating. The fact that you cheated in high school and in college doesn't give them the chance to cheat and it doesn't give you the rights to tell them that they can cheat.
This is more of an idealistic philosophy in the pedagogy. We should try to uphold moral and spiritual values in the classroom. Simply saying that you don't want them to cheat, that Jesus is looking at them or Satan will make them his disciples when they cheat could discourage cheating.
Guidelines for Teachers in Arranging Test Items
Grades are the figurative representations of students' scholastic performances. They show how bright/dull or active/inactive a student is in a specific period of time. Unfortunately, fifty percent of grades are taken from written examinations. This is why students have to write more and speak less to acquire higher grades.
Teachers aim to collect valid and reliable results from examinations. This means that they have to do everything to make their examinations standard enough to gauge or measure what has to be measured -- understanding.
Aside from psychological factors that may lessen the validity or reliability of an examination, there are also physical factors -- physical factors in the students' part and physical factors of the examination paper itself.
Arrangement of test items, color of the exam paper, font and font size used in the paper, font spaces used and many physical factors may affect the test's validity and reliability.
Here are some guidelines in arranging test items.
1. Should be arranged categorically
It would be really hard for a student if the test items are randomly categorized. This could scrabble ideas in the students' minds.
This is why it has been practiced by many students that the examination is divided into tests. Test one will focus on a specific category (say, multiple-choice), test two on another and so on.
2. ARRANGE items logically
Test items should be logically arranged. One of the most common logical arrangement is, of course, in numerical order. Others say that test items should also be arranged in a way that the first items are easier than the succeeding items. They say this in light of Edward Thorndike's Law of Effect.
3. SELECTION before supply
Examples of selection-type test-category are multiple-choice, matching type and other examples where students only have to choose the best answer. Examples of supply-type test-category are those which require students to identify or fill out blanks.
Psychologists say that selection-type test-categories are easier than supply-type because it gives students choices. This is, as I've mentioned a while ago, in light of E. Thorndike's Law of Effect. Students must first feel ease in answering so that they will not be demotivated.
4. SHORT items before essay
Essay-categories require more time and they require more thinking, sometimes. This means that short items should go before. This will give students more time to think.
5. SPECIFY and make clear the directions.
Most of the time, students fail examinations because of vague questions and directions. Wrong questions lead to wrong answers and wrong directions lead to wrong executions.
Teachers must be very careful in making clear the directions.
6. AVOID cramming items too closely to each other.
Not only that very closely crammed test items cost the face validity of an examination, they also lessen the students' ability to focus on the exam. It would be hard for them to read the questions and it would risk their understanding.
One last thing: teachers are facilitators of assessment and learning. Therefore: teachers must make things easier for students if possible.
7. AVOID splitting test items across two pages.
I personally loathe this when I was in high school. I hate it when the question for a multiple-choice item is in the first page and the choices are in the next page. It causes me to lose my concentration.
One thing that the teacher should avoid is for the students to lose concentration.
8. NUMBER items consecutively.
There is no way you could write 1, 4, 6, 8, 9 2, 5... for you test items. And, what the hell is that for, anyway!? It would be very confusing for the students.
Teachers aim to collect valid and reliable results from examinations. This means that they have to do everything to make their examinations standard enough to gauge or measure what has to be measured -- understanding.
Aside from psychological factors that may lessen the validity or reliability of an examination, there are also physical factors -- physical factors in the students' part and physical factors of the examination paper itself.
Arrangement of test items, color of the exam paper, font and font size used in the paper, font spaces used and many physical factors may affect the test's validity and reliability.
Here are some guidelines in arranging test items.
1. Should be arranged categorically
It would be really hard for a student if the test items are randomly categorized. This could scrabble ideas in the students' minds.
This is why it has been practiced by many students that the examination is divided into tests. Test one will focus on a specific category (say, multiple-choice), test two on another and so on.
2. ARRANGE items logically
Test items should be logically arranged. One of the most common logical arrangement is, of course, in numerical order. Others say that test items should also be arranged in a way that the first items are easier than the succeeding items. They say this in light of Edward Thorndike's Law of Effect.
3. SELECTION before supply
Examples of selection-type test-category are multiple-choice, matching type and other examples where students only have to choose the best answer. Examples of supply-type test-category are those which require students to identify or fill out blanks.
Psychologists say that selection-type test-categories are easier than supply-type because it gives students choices. This is, as I've mentioned a while ago, in light of E. Thorndike's Law of Effect. Students must first feel ease in answering so that they will not be demotivated.
4. SHORT items before essay
Essay-categories require more time and they require more thinking, sometimes. This means that short items should go before. This will give students more time to think.
5. SPECIFY and make clear the directions.
Most of the time, students fail examinations because of vague questions and directions. Wrong questions lead to wrong answers and wrong directions lead to wrong executions.
Teachers must be very careful in making clear the directions.
6. AVOID cramming items too closely to each other.
Not only that very closely crammed test items cost the face validity of an examination, they also lessen the students' ability to focus on the exam. It would be hard for them to read the questions and it would risk their understanding.
One last thing: teachers are facilitators of assessment and learning. Therefore: teachers must make things easier for students if possible.
7. AVOID splitting test items across two pages.
I personally loathe this when I was in high school. I hate it when the question for a multiple-choice item is in the first page and the choices are in the next page. It causes me to lose my concentration.
One thing that the teacher should avoid is for the students to lose concentration.
8. NUMBER items consecutively.
There is no way you could write 1, 4, 6, 8, 9 2, 5... for you test items. And, what the hell is that for, anyway!? It would be very confusing for the students.
Eight (8) Strategies for Teachers to Prevent Cheating before The Exam
Cheating, though inevitable, should be discouraged in the classroom. Teachers should exhaust each and every possible means to prevent it from happening. This is deeply rooted under a long-founded philosophy of education -- idealism. Idealism pushes through morale and spirituality inside the classroom.
According to a long-existing child philosophy, the child-depravity theory, children are naturally evil and teachers should prevent this evil to spread all over the students' bodies. One way is get bad things nipped in the bud.
Cheating is evil, though I don't agree much. Anyway, here are the strategies to prevent cheating BEFORE the examination.
Cheating is evil, though I don't agree much. Anyway, here are the strategies to prevent cheating BEFORE the examination.
1. Erasures mean wrong.
This is a very effective technique. This could actually encourage students to review and to study more. For those who did well in reviewing, this isn't a problem whatsoever but for those who didn't, this could get them in a messy situation. They could try to cheat but it will be a dilemma.
Only, teachers should keep in mind that corrections aren't erasures. Some teachers over do it.
2. Use idealistic principles.
Saying that cheating is a bad thing, that students who cheat are Satan's disciples and Jesus wouldn't like to see them cheating are long-time techniques but they are as effective as they were before.
3. Keep distance.
I had a professor who wouldn't start the exam without us arranges in a one-meter distance from each other. She's actually disarranging us so that we couldn't sit near our closer friends. Distance is one safe way to prevent cheating. Not only can a teacher detect easily when someone cheats but also, the students will hesitate to extend their necks.
4. Teach well.
So far, this is the safest way to prevent cheating. The students wouldn't need to cheat if they understood the lessons. One can say that there are also student-factors but teachers hold the wheels. We must be responsible in doing everything to make our lessons palatable to the taste of the students.
So far, this is the safest way to prevent cheating. The students wouldn't need to cheat if they understood the lessons. One can say that there are also student-factors but teachers hold the wheels. We must be responsible in doing everything to make our lessons palatable to the taste of the students.
5. Give the students sufficient time to prepare for the test.
Give students announcements about the exam beforehand.
Give students announcements about the exam beforehand.
Imagine giving students a day to prepare for a major exam. Two things could happen: they fail or they pass. The students cannot afford the former. They will find a way.
6. Acquaint the students with the nature of the test and its coverage.
A week before the examination, the students must be informed about the nature and the coverage of the test. This will serve as help for them and will serve as a tool for you, as a teacher, to prevent cheating.
Giving pointers to review and announcing the types of test are great if they aren't over done. Be careful not to lessen the validity of the examination by giving the students too much information.
7. Let them define cheating.
Letting them define what cheating is a great way of deterring cheating. If it came out from their own mouths that cheating is not good, it will activate their conscience.
It's like letting them discourage one another.
8. Explain the discipline imposed when caught cheating.
Except for harsh and inhuman punishments and sanctions, you can use them. Letting the students know what the consequences of their actions be will serve as a warning sign for them.
Except for harsh and inhuman punishments and sanctions, you can use them. Letting the students know what the consequences of their actions be will serve as a warning sign for them.
Now, be sure that you will implement these disciplines because if you don't you will lose the students' respect and trust.
Innovative Teaching Methods for Elementary & Secondary School Teachers in the Philippines
As education students we are bound to study principles, methods, approaches and techniques in teaching. They say we need these things to become competitive in our field and to become effective for the learners.
We've been studying so much about these principles, methods, approaches and techniques and there are, still, too many to learn. The remaining time isn't enough to learn all the things which are ought to be learned. This makes us fear the day we will take the Licensure Examination for Teachers.
***
Two of the things we've learned from our Prof. Ed. 33-a and Prof. Ed. 33-b subjects are the two innovative teaching methods: FLIP & PORPE.
FLIP is an approach or method that could be used by teachers to establish colorful learning environment and ambiance that are conducive to education.
Friendliness. A teacher must always keep in mind that pressure is one of the barriers of learning. This is why smiling or befriending with the students could lead to better outcomes. It could give them the confident to express themselves further during discussions or to share what's wrong.
Language. A teacher must always consider the linguistic capabilities of his students. Though it might be true that English should be the medium of instruction, it didn't mean that a teacher could utter all the words he'd like to say. High-sounding or highfalutin are not advisable is he wanted to ensure learning. Simple words are enough. Simplicity is beauty.
Interest. In the selection of learning content and experiences a teacher must always consider the interest of the learners. The learners are individuals. They have different inclinations. Therefore, a teacher must carefully think about the instrument of learning to be used. This instrument must go in line with their interest.
Prior Knowledge. Are the learners ready for this lesson? Do they have enough schema for a new learning experience? Can the learners relate these new things to those which they already know? These are the questions concerning prior knowledge. What the students know should critically be considered before plotting the objectives, procedures and contents of the new learning experience.
***
PORPE is well known as a strategy of test preparation but it could also be applied as an effective teaching method.
Predict. Teachers must be good fortune tellers. They must anticipate what may ever happen in the classroom. A teacher must predict what the learners are thinking, planning or doing. This helps the teacher to get ahead of them and to avoid being caught flat footed.
Observe. Observation is one of the scientific methods. Observation is one of the ways of gathering data. Since students' background and prior knowledge are essential factors for the succeeding lessons, a teacher must be very good in observing the behavior of the students.
Organize. Organization of ideas is an essential tool for smooth and understandable flow of ideas.
Rehearse. The teacher must be prepared at all times. Teacher must rehearse what to say in case that arguments arise. He must be well rehearsed.
Practice. Rehearsal involves foreseeing what will happen and what should happen. Practice involves drills that teachers always have to do. Practice makes perfect what one rehearsed.
Evaluate. Was the instruction effective? Did the students learn? Were the students able to catch up with the lesson? There are reflective evaluations that a teacher must undergo to improve future instructions and to determine errors in instruction.
Educational Technology for Teachers
Educational technology is a process, a product, a profession and a discipline.
As a process, it is the theory and practice of designing, developing, utilizing, managing and evaluating processes and resources intended for learning (AECT, 1994).
As a product, educational technology refers to results of the education-technological processes like programmed texts, TV progras, computer software, audio-visual media, interactive multimedia and entire courses of instruction (Hackbarth, 1996).
As a profession, it is composed of various job categories such as media technicians,, media specialists, instructional developers and others (Ibid.).
As a discipline, it is an academic field of specialization within the larger discipline of education (Ibid.).
[Technology Integration is the process of determining where and how technology fits into teaching and learning (Williams, 2000).
Global & National Development Trends & Directions in Education in the 21st Century
1. Globalization. Globalization is the process by which all the aspects of society interact and operate in an international scale.
2. Changing Environment or Political and Cultural Landscapes. Due to the advent of different modes of transportation and different media of communication people all over the world start to understand and adapt cultures from other countries. Not only this but also people from communist or totalitarian governments are starting to realize that there such a thing called "democracy," thus leading to changes in points of view and perspectives in politics and governance.
3. Cultural Homogeneity. Nations all over the world are starting to adapt a single culture. For example, the English language (language is a part of culture) is now being spoken by at least most of the people of the world. The use of computers and the internet has becomes a part of our "global culture."
4. The Information and Communication Technology; Revolution and High Connectivity. Due to the advent of different media, most of the people of the world are informed immediately of anything happening around the globe. People are connected and brought together by new technologies in communication, thus increasing the potential for learning.
5. The Changing World of Work. Work nowadays are becoming easier and easier. Typist don't have to encode anymore. Instead, they only have to encode. Teachers don't have to teach everything anymore. Instead, they only have to bring out knowledge from the learners. The nature of works has shifted from completely-manual to technology-assisted. This increases the demand for different skills such as encoding, lay-outing, photo-editing, web-designing, etc.
6. Human Development. The things around us are not the only ones that have changed. Our values, morals and attitudes were also influenced the changing world. We have adopted, for the past decades, a concern for the dignity of all human persons, not only those within our society but also those without and not only those who share the same skin color with but also those who do not.
Attitude towards gays have changed. Many years ago, personality aberration is considered a psychological disorder. Now, we consider is as a gender preference.
2. Changing Environment or Political and Cultural Landscapes. Due to the advent of different modes of transportation and different media of communication people all over the world start to understand and adapt cultures from other countries. Not only this but also people from communist or totalitarian governments are starting to realize that there such a thing called "democracy," thus leading to changes in points of view and perspectives in politics and governance.
3. Cultural Homogeneity. Nations all over the world are starting to adapt a single culture. For example, the English language (language is a part of culture) is now being spoken by at least most of the people of the world. The use of computers and the internet has becomes a part of our "global culture."
4. The Information and Communication Technology; Revolution and High Connectivity. Due to the advent of different media, most of the people of the world are informed immediately of anything happening around the globe. People are connected and brought together by new technologies in communication, thus increasing the potential for learning.
5. The Changing World of Work. Work nowadays are becoming easier and easier. Typist don't have to encode anymore. Instead, they only have to encode. Teachers don't have to teach everything anymore. Instead, they only have to bring out knowledge from the learners. The nature of works has shifted from completely-manual to technology-assisted. This increases the demand for different skills such as encoding, lay-outing, photo-editing, web-designing, etc.
6. Human Development. The things around us are not the only ones that have changed. Our values, morals and attitudes were also influenced the changing world. We have adopted, for the past decades, a concern for the dignity of all human persons, not only those within our society but also those without and not only those who share the same skin color with but also those who do not.
Attitude towards gays have changed. Many years ago, personality aberration is considered a psychological disorder. Now, we consider is as a gender preference.
21st-Century Characteristics of Education in the Philippines
Education for the 21st century is characterized by four things: quality, equity, relevance and sustainability. These characteristics imply that education must be excellent, effective, democratic, inclusive, functional, meaningful, futuristic and universal.
EXCELLENT. Education must not be mediocre. It must be outstanding, world-class.
EFFECTIVE. Education is expected to produce learning outcomes through contents and experiences.
DEMOCRATIC. It should possess democratic principles such as due process and freedom. It must be of the learners and not of the teachers. It must not dictate but suggest.
INCLUSIVE. Education must not exclude anyone only because of culture, ethnicity or religious or political beliefs. It must be for all.
FUNCTIONAL. It must have an effect on the society and on the children. Education must be applicable and not only theoretical.
MEANINGFUL. Education must have purposeful. The learners must be able to derive valid or worthwhile knowledge, skills and experiences from it.
FUTURISTIC. It must look into what will happen. It must, just like what John Dewey said, aim to improve the society and prepare it for what will come. It must not be stagnant and rigid.
UNIVERSAL. Education must not be local or provincial. It must be integrated with what the whole world can offer and it must bring out what the learner can do not only for his immediate environment but for the world.
EXCELLENT. Education must not be mediocre. It must be outstanding, world-class.
EFFECTIVE. Education is expected to produce learning outcomes through contents and experiences.
DEMOCRATIC. It should possess democratic principles such as due process and freedom. It must be of the learners and not of the teachers. It must not dictate but suggest.
INCLUSIVE. Education must not exclude anyone only because of culture, ethnicity or religious or political beliefs. It must be for all.
FUNCTIONAL. It must have an effect on the society and on the children. Education must be applicable and not only theoretical.
MEANINGFUL. Education must have purposeful. The learners must be able to derive valid or worthwhile knowledge, skills and experiences from it.
FUTURISTIC. It must look into what will happen. It must, just like what John Dewey said, aim to improve the society and prepare it for what will come. It must not be stagnant and rigid.
UNIVERSAL. Education must not be local or provincial. It must be integrated with what the whole world can offer and it must bring out what the learner can do not only for his immediate environment but for the world.
Teacher's Power in the Classroom by Mark Angelo S. dela Peña
Education, for the past centuries, has undergone developments and innovations. New techniques, approaches and methods of teaching are being developed from time to time. In spite of the technologies and researches that this modern world has brought to the walls of schools and to the covers of the textbooks, the traditional view of education still prevails: learners must submit themselves to the teacher.
This view means that the teacher's authority inside the classroom and over the learners cannot be questioned. The foundation for this view is the belief that without the power of the teacher, the learners wouldn't learn.
***
Some educators believe that teachers must communicate a certain degree of power to give way for learning. This way, learning is defined as the maintenance of power of the teacher over the students -- which is rather questionable. Others continue to suggest that the more power the teacher employed, the more often he must use it.
The teaching-learning process aims to attain learning and what is the teaching process, by the way? Other educators argue that communication, itself, is the teaching process. Knowing something isn't teaching yet until it is communicated. Teaching is a skill and so is good communication. They also stress that there are two things to be communicated among the learners: information and power.
***
Power and communication are interrelated. Power that is not used is power that doesn't exist and communication is required to use power. Powerless is a teacher, therefore, without his ability to communicate. In the same way, the ways and extents that a teacher communicates with the learners determine, in some extent, the degree of power that he holds.
Power, when used effectively, will have a great impact on the teaching-learning process because teaching is communication.
***
But what is power, anyway? Power can be defined differently across different cultures and disciplines. We need the the definition of power which can describe that which the teacher holds inside the classroom.
Three educators defined power as "the teacher's ability to affect, in some way, the student's well-being beyond the student's control." The problem is that this view didn't take into account intellectual assent to influence on the part of the learners.
A broader view says that power is the teacher's "ability to influence a learner's or a group of learners' behavior." This broad view was successful to include the teacher's ability to let a learner do something which he would not do had he not been influenced by the teacher. This is particularly true in some instances where a teacher was able to influence a student's decision or choice.
***
The definitions of power above are well said and well accepted until the came of French and Raven's (1968) BASES OF POWER. They qualified these definitions by noting that the result of a power must be the effect of a specific type of power exerted by the teacher and not just any combination of other external forces. The result of the specific power exerted must be specific and thus the birth of the FIVE BASES OF POWER: coercive, reward, legitimate, referent and expert powers.
This view means that the teacher's authority inside the classroom and over the learners cannot be questioned. The foundation for this view is the belief that without the power of the teacher, the learners wouldn't learn.
***
Some educators believe that teachers must communicate a certain degree of power to give way for learning. This way, learning is defined as the maintenance of power of the teacher over the students -- which is rather questionable. Others continue to suggest that the more power the teacher employed, the more often he must use it.
The teaching-learning process aims to attain learning and what is the teaching process, by the way? Other educators argue that communication, itself, is the teaching process. Knowing something isn't teaching yet until it is communicated. Teaching is a skill and so is good communication. They also stress that there are two things to be communicated among the learners: information and power.
***
Power and communication are interrelated. Power that is not used is power that doesn't exist and communication is required to use power. Powerless is a teacher, therefore, without his ability to communicate. In the same way, the ways and extents that a teacher communicates with the learners determine, in some extent, the degree of power that he holds.
Power, when used effectively, will have a great impact on the teaching-learning process because teaching is communication.
***
But what is power, anyway? Power can be defined differently across different cultures and disciplines. We need the the definition of power which can describe that which the teacher holds inside the classroom.
Three educators defined power as "the teacher's ability to affect, in some way, the student's well-being beyond the student's control." The problem is that this view didn't take into account intellectual assent to influence on the part of the learners.
A broader view says that power is the teacher's "ability to influence a learner's or a group of learners' behavior." This broad view was successful to include the teacher's ability to let a learner do something which he would not do had he not been influenced by the teacher. This is particularly true in some instances where a teacher was able to influence a student's decision or choice.
***
The definitions of power above are well said and well accepted until the came of French and Raven's (1968) BASES OF POWER. They qualified these definitions by noting that the result of a power must be the effect of a specific type of power exerted by the teacher and not just any combination of other external forces. The result of the specific power exerted must be specific and thus the birth of the FIVE BASES OF POWER: coercive, reward, legitimate, referent and expert powers.
A Discussion of the Five Bases of Classroom Power by Mark Angelo S. dela Peña
As I have mentioned last time, French and Raven (1968) qualified other definitions of power by providing the five bases of power. These five bases of power are founded in the perception of individuals over whom the power is exerted and are concerned with the particular influence or effect that a specific type of power produces.
Although French and Raven did not write this for classroom management, we can see how it relates to our context below.
1. COERCIVE POWER
Coercive power is the power of a teacher based on the expectation of the student that he will be punished by the teacher if he does not conform to the influence exerted by the teacher. This extends even outside the school setting.
The strength of a teacher's coercive power depends upon the student's perception of the degree of the punishment, the probability that the punishment will actually be implemented and the probability of greater punishment from other sources.
The punishment for nonconformity to the teacher's influence attempt has two perceived nature. One is the punishment that the teacher may provide something unpleasant and another is the punishment of removing something pleasant.
It is also notable that in any environment where there is a strong peer-force against the teacher, the coercive power of the teacher is considerably low even if the teacher exert higher degrees of punishment.
2. REWARD POWER
Reward power is the power of a teacher based on the expectation of the student that he will be rewarded by the teacher if he does conform to the influence attempt of the teacher. This may also extend outside the school setting.
Just like the coercive power, the strength of the reward power depends upon the student's perception of the degree of reward, the probability that the reward may actually be given and the probability of receiving greater reward from other sources.
Reward can be perceived in two forms. One is that the teacher will provide something pleasant and another is that the teacher may remove something unpleasant.
Reward power and coercive power are flip sides of a coin, so to speak. These two powers work together, hand in hand.
3. LEGITIMATE POWER
Legitimate power is also perceived as the power carried by the teacher vested in him by a higher institution or office. This power views the teacher as someone "assigned" to take over the classroom and to manage students' behavior.
Legitimate power is based upon the perception that the teacher has the bestowed rights to make certain demands and requests for the betterment and improvement of the classroom or the school environment and the teaching-learning process. Since the function of the teacher is to manage the students' behavior, the teacher has the power to demand silence, cleanliness, respect, etc. from the students.
This power is only effective within the classroom or the school vicinity and is least likely to be observed in other places. The strength of this power depends upon the student's personal relationship to the teacher. The thinner the wall, the weaker the legitimate power.
4. REFERENT POWER
Referent power is based upon the student's identification with the teacher. Since the teacher is a "more powerful figure," the student, as a "less powerful figure," tries to get himself identified by the teacher.
This is also based on the perception that the student always tries to make a connection or relationship between him and his teacher. The stronger the student's identification with the teacher, the stronger the referent power is.
Student E is teacher D's student in another class. One time, Student E saw teacher D carrying heavy books and on her way to her next class. Student E immediately extended help.
5. EXPERT POWER
Expert power is based upon the student's assumption that the teacher is competent and knowledgeable in his area of specialization or in any field. This creates an atmosphere of respect for the teacher every time he stands in front or talk to the students regarding that specific course of knowledge.
Even though ideas presented by the teacher are not yet proven in any objective way, the students still holds them true. Thus, the expert power has some kind of intellectual influence upon the students. A change of behavior or understanding led by the teacher shows a high degree of expert power.
The strength of this power depends upon the confidence of the teacher and the validity of the ideas he professes. The more the students doubt or question the teacher's ideas, the weaker the expert power is.
Although French and Raven did not write this for classroom management, we can see how it relates to our context below.
1. COERCIVE POWER
Coercive power is the power of a teacher based on the expectation of the student that he will be punished by the teacher if he does not conform to the influence exerted by the teacher. This extends even outside the school setting.
The strength of a teacher's coercive power depends upon the student's perception of the degree of the punishment, the probability that the punishment will actually be implemented and the probability of greater punishment from other sources.
The punishment for nonconformity to the teacher's influence attempt has two perceived nature. One is the punishment that the teacher may provide something unpleasant and another is the punishment of removing something pleasant.
It is also notable that in any environment where there is a strong peer-force against the teacher, the coercive power of the teacher is considerably low even if the teacher exert higher degrees of punishment.
Teacher A asked student A to clean the room before leaving and teacher A said she'll be back to check it.
2. REWARD POWER
Reward power is the power of a teacher based on the expectation of the student that he will be rewarded by the teacher if he does conform to the influence attempt of the teacher. This may also extend outside the school setting.
Just like the coercive power, the strength of the reward power depends upon the student's perception of the degree of reward, the probability that the reward may actually be given and the probability of receiving greater reward from other sources.
Reward can be perceived in two forms. One is that the teacher will provide something pleasant and another is that the teacher may remove something unpleasant.
Reward power and coercive power are flip sides of a coin, so to speak. These two powers work together, hand in hand.
Teacher B, who's a Math teacher, requested student B, who has low grades in Math, to photocopy some documents for her. Student B followed the instructions immediately without complaint.
3. LEGITIMATE POWER
Legitimate power is also perceived as the power carried by the teacher vested in him by a higher institution or office. This power views the teacher as someone "assigned" to take over the classroom and to manage students' behavior.
Legitimate power is based upon the perception that the teacher has the bestowed rights to make certain demands and requests for the betterment and improvement of the classroom or the school environment and the teaching-learning process. Since the function of the teacher is to manage the students' behavior, the teacher has the power to demand silence, cleanliness, respect, etc. from the students.
This power is only effective within the classroom or the school vicinity and is least likely to be observed in other places. The strength of this power depends upon the student's personal relationship to the teacher. The thinner the wall, the weaker the legitimate power.
Before the lesson starts, teacher C asked student C to throw the garbage and student D to erase the writings on the board.
4. REFERENT POWER
Referent power is based upon the student's identification with the teacher. Since the teacher is a "more powerful figure," the student, as a "less powerful figure," tries to get himself identified by the teacher.
This is also based on the perception that the student always tries to make a connection or relationship between him and his teacher. The stronger the student's identification with the teacher, the stronger the referent power is.
Student E is teacher D's student in another class. One time, Student E saw teacher D carrying heavy books and on her way to her next class. Student E immediately extended help.
5. EXPERT POWER
Expert power is based upon the student's assumption that the teacher is competent and knowledgeable in his area of specialization or in any field. This creates an atmosphere of respect for the teacher every time he stands in front or talk to the students regarding that specific course of knowledge.
Even though ideas presented by the teacher are not yet proven in any objective way, the students still holds them true. Thus, the expert power has some kind of intellectual influence upon the students. A change of behavior or understanding led by the teacher shows a high degree of expert power.
The strength of this power depends upon the confidence of the teacher and the validity of the ideas he professes. The more the students doubt or question the teacher's ideas, the weaker the expert power is.
Student F asked his English teacher what the correct spelling for "behavior" is. After the teacher answered, student F didn't feel the necessity of looking it up in the dictionary and went on fully believing what the teacher said.
An Overview of Assessing Affective Outcomes of Classroom Learning for Teachers
The main goal
of the teaching-learning process is learning. Learning is should be facilitated
and assessed. Learning doesn’t only refer to substantive or content knowledge
because learning can be in many forms. It can be a knowledge learned, a skill
acquired or an attitude patterned. Within the school, a learner also learners
to interact with other people and from his experiences he learn, acquire or
pattern his attitudes, beliefs, preferences, morals, ethics, feelings, etc..
Since affects are also products of the teaching-learning process, they should
also be assessed.
FIVE LEVELS OF AFFECTIVE DOMAIN OF
LEARNING
Receiving –
Being aware or attending to something in the environment
Responding –
Showing new behaviors as a result of learning/experiences
Valuing –
Showing some definite involvement or commitment
Organizing –
Integrating new values into one’s general set of values and giving ranks or
prioritizing them
Characterization
– Acting consistently with the new rule
ASSESSMENT OF AFFECTIVE OUTCOMES
Only a few
approaches to the assessment of affective outcomes have been translated into
classroom use. It is helpful for a teacher to know different approaches to
assess whether students are learning affectively.
APPROACHES TO THE ASSESSMENT OF
AFFECTIVE OUTCOMES
Robinson
& shaver (1993) mentioned ways to assess attitudes and dynamic outcomes.
They are as follows:
Money. A student who spends money on books
has, more likely, an inclination to reading and it can be deduced that he loves
what he does. People spend most of their money in things which they consider
important.
Time. Time is gold. Gold in important. If some spends his
time on something, it shows his love or interest in what he does.
Verbal Expressions.
A person who speaks of the Bible is obviously affectively inclined to the Words
of God.
Fund of Information. One who knows a lot about
the solar system has more likely spends time and money to know such
information. This shows his affective inclination to the field which interests
him.
Speed of Decision or Reaction Time. A person who makes quick decision
between attending ballet recitals or seminars shows his preference, beliefs and
attitudes. If he chooses to attend the seminar, it means that he has strong
belied or conviction that seminars are more important.
Written Expression or Personal
Documents. Writing
reflects who a person is. Emily Dickinson’s poems are always about bravery
towards death. It only shows her attitude.
Sociometric Measures. Though a lot of contentions can be
said against this, it still prevails that who your friends are is who you are.
Activity Level Methods. An activity that arouses one’s
interest and in which he exerts a lot of energy is more likely the activity
that he prefers.
Observations. Observing how a person conducts
himself is the best way to assess his affects.
Specific Performances and Behaviors. A person’s behavior toward something
is his attitude, belief, preference, etc. A person who hurts animals may be an
animal-hater or just a violent person.
Memory Measures. Our memory absorbs the best when it
is stimulated to do so. Recalling something easily reflects affects.
Simulations. Games, role playing and other
activities that represent outside interaction are good conditions from which
one’s affects can be observed.
THERE ARE
WAYS to gather affective data. In this part of the lecture, we will have the
following, one by one:
1. Self-report
2. Attitude
scale (Forced-Choice
Selection Method, Summated
Ratings or Likert Scale, The
Semantic Differential Technique)
3. The Free
Response and Opinionnaire Method
4. Simple
Projective Techniques
5. Self-expression
Techniques
6. Checklist
WRITING ITEMS FOR SELF-REPORT AFFECTIVE MEASURES
These are
guidelines and criteria to be considered to develop or edit activities that
measure affective outcomes (Payne, 2003). Payne cited several things to avoid:
1. Avoid
statements referring to the past. Instead, refer to the present.
2. Avoid
statements that are factual or are capable of being interpreted as factual.
3. Avoid
statements that can be interpreted in more than one way.
4. Avoid
statements that are irrelevant to the psychological object under consideration.
5. Avoid
statements that are likely to be endorsed by everyone or by no one.
6. Avoid
reflecting the entire range of affectivity.
7. Avoid
using complex, ambiguous or indirect language.
8. Avoid
statements that are too long (more than 20 words).
9. Avoid
statements that contain more than one complete thought.
10. Avoid
statements that contain universals: “only,” “just,” “merely,” “none” and others
of familiar nature.
11. Avoid
statements that are formed with compound or complex sentences.
12. Avoid
using highfalutin words or words difficult to understand.
13. Avoid
double negatives.
STEPS IN CONSTRUCTING AN ATTITUDE SCALE
Berdie et al.
(1996) described an effective method to construct an attitude scale. There are
steps and they are as follows:
Collect a
pool of statements.
If you plan to have an attitude scale for cheating, let your students write
three or four statements towards cheating.
Select the best statements.
Using a criteria cull 30 items from a pool of 50 or 60 statements.
Administer the inventory.
This is not a test; there is no right and wrong answer. All the sentences in
the list represent ideas that some people hold about cheating on tests.
Students can make use of the plus (+) sign or the minus (-) sign to indicate
whether they agree or disagree, respectively. If students are uncertain, they
can indicate this using a question (?) mark. Students can intensify their
responses by encircling the symbol they incurred. For example, and encircled
plus (+) sign symbolized that the student strongly agrees with the statement.
Of course, these indications can be modified.
Score the inventory.
Values can be assigned to responses. Refer to the given example below.
Symbol
|
Points given
|
Encircled +
|
5
|
+
|
4
|
-
|
3
|
Encircled -
|
2
|
?
|
0
|
If the
maximum possible score is 150, this will indicate a favorable attitude. The
minimum can be 30 score and the indifference can be 90.
ATTITUDE
SCALING:
FORCED-CHOICE SELECTION METHODS
This method
requires/forces respondents to select among choices that differ in content.
This is instead of choosing the degree of favorableness or intensity. The
respondent is to choose the statement that best describes him. The format is
the same with that of a multiple-choice examination and can be a description of
a situation.
The
forced-choice selection method: minimizes the subjectivity of the exam; reduces
fakability; produces a better distribution; is quick, efficient and objective;
and produces scores that are easily analyzed.
ATTITUDE SCALING:
SUMMATED RATING OR LIKERT SCALES
In this
method, respondents are to choose among numbers (1, 2,3, 4 and 5) or letter (A,
B, C, D and E) which are assigned with response categories (strongly agree,
agree, uncertain, disagree or strongly disagree). Numerical weights are best
used for easiness of computation.
ATTITUDE
SCALING:
SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL TECHNIQUE
This method
makes use of bipolar adjective scales. It is designed to measure attitudes,
feelings and opinions by degree from very favorable to highly unfavorable.
Refer to the examples below:
Fast
___ - ___ - ___ - ___ - ___ - ___
-____
Slow
Good
___ - ___ - ___ - ___ - ___ - ___
-____
Bad
Quite
___ - ___ - ___ - ___ - ___ - ___
-____
Active
Strong
___ - ___ - ___ - ___ - ___ - ___
-____
Weak
There are steps
in developing a semantic differential scale. There are enumerated as
follows:
1. Identify
the concepts to be rated.
2. Choose
appropriate bipolar scales.
3. Design
a response sheet.
4. Write
instructions.
FREE RESPONSE AND OPINIONNAIRE METHOD
This method
brings out every relevant response and ensures that all necessary questions are
asked. The students are free to respond the way they deem proper.
The following criteria are
to be considered in preparing an opinionnaire (Gable, 1996):
1. Brevity
2. Inclusion
of items of interest and face appeal to the respondents
3. Provision
for depth responses
4. Wording
should neither be suggestive nor unstimulating.
5. Phrasing
of questions should allay suspicion about hidden purposes and should not
embarrass/threaten respondents.
6. Phrasing
of question should not be too narrow. It should allow respondents a reasonable
latitude.
There are two
types of opinionnaires – the close/pre-categorized type and the
open/free-response type. A pre-categorized type is very closely related to the
forced-response technique in that it requires a respondent to choose between or
among categorized responses. The former, on the other hand, gives absolute
freedom for any type of response.
There are general cautions to be considered when preparing an opinionnaire:
1. Spell
out objectives, purposes and specifications for the instrument.
2. Try
to limit the length of the questionnaire to ten questions.
3. Make
sure that the students understand the purpose of the questionnaire.
4. Use
a sequence of questions.
5. Motivate
the students to answer thoughtfully.
6. Control
the questionnaire’s administration.
7. Urge
the students to express their own thoughts.
8. Be
sure that directions are clear, definite and complete.
9. Urge
student to ask clarifying questions.
10. Pilot-test
the questions that are not clear to them.
SIMPLE PROJECTILE TECHNIQUES
SPT or
(simple projectile technique) can be done using word association, unfinished sentences or unfinished stories.
Word association is done by presenting a word and letting the student respond
using the first word that comes out from his mind. Unfinished sentences are
done by letting the student fill out missing parts of a sentence. Unfinished
story is done by asking students to tell how a story should end.
SELF-EXPRESSION TECHNIQUES
SET give the
student the opportunity to express their ideas and opinions about themselves
and others. Johari’s Window and other modified forms are the best examples of
this.
CHECKLISTS
This is the
simplest way to gather affective data. Students are only required to tick items
that are either desirable/favorable or undesirable/unfavorable for them.
The 12 Principles of High Quality Assessment of Learning for Teachers
1. CLARITY & APPROPRIATENESS OF LEARNING TARGETS
Assessment should be clearly stated and specified and centered on what is truly important.
2. APPROPRIATE ASSESSMENT METHODS
Assessment should utilize assessment methods suitable for a particular learning target.
3. BALANCE
Assessment methods should be able to assess all domains of learning and hierarchy of objectives.
4. VALIDITY
Assessment should be valid. There are several types of validity that are to be established.
5. RELIABILITY
Assessment should show consistent and stable results. There are methods which can be used to measure and establish reliability.
6. FAIRNESS
Assessment should give equal opportunities for every student. There should be no discrimination of any kind (racial, age, gender, etc.)
7. AUTHENTICITY
Assessment should touch real life situations and should emphasize practicability.
8. PRACTICALITY & EFFICIENCY
Assessment should save time, money, etc. It should be resourceful.
9. ASSESSMENT IS A CONTINUOUS PROCESS.
Because assessment is an integral part of the teaching-learning process, it should be continuous.
10. ETHICS IN ASSESSMENT
11. CLEAR COMMUNICATION
12. POSITIVITY OF CONSEQUENCE
Assessment should be clearly stated and specified and centered on what is truly important.
"Teaching emphasis should parallel testing emphasis."
LEARNING TARGETS
| |
Knowledge
|
Students’ mastery of the content.
|
Reasoning
|
Students’ ability to use their knowledge.
|
Skills
|
Students’ ability to demonstrate what they have learned.
|
Products
|
Students’ ability to create.
|
Affects
|
Students’ emotional attainments.
|
2. APPROPRIATE ASSESSMENT METHODS
Assessment should utilize assessment methods suitable for a particular learning target.
ASSESSMENT METHODS
|
LEARNING TARGETS
|
Objective Supply
|
Knowledge
|
Objective Select
|
Knowledge
|
Essay
|
Reasoning
|
Performance-based
|
Skills, products
|
Oral-question
|
Knowledge, reasoning
|
Observation
|
Knowledge, skills
|
Self-report
|
Affects
|
3. BALANCE
Assessment methods should be able to assess all domains of learning and hierarchy of objectives.
DOMAINS OF LEARNING:
|
Cognitive
|
Affective
|
Psychomotor
|
HIERARCHY OF OBJECTIVES
| |
(BLOOM)
|
(ANDERSON)
|
Evaluation
|
Create
|
Synthesis
|
Evaluate
|
Analysis
|
Apply
|
Application
|
Analyze
|
Comprehension
|
Understand
|
Knowledge
|
Remember
|
4. VALIDITY
Assessment should be valid. There are several types of validity that are to be established.
TYPES OF VALIDITY
|
Content Validity
|
Face Validity
|
Concurrent Validity
|
Predictive Validity
|
Discriminant Validity
|
Construct Validity
|
5. RELIABILITY
Assessment should show consistent and stable results. There are methods which can be used to measure and establish reliability.
RELIABILITY CAN BE MEASURED USING:
| |
Test-retake or Retest Method
|
Giving the same examination after several minutes to several years.
|
SPLIT-HALF
|
This is used to establish internal consistency using Pearson r formula.
|
Parallel-form/Equivalence test
|
Giving the same examination within the day.
|
Test of Stability
|
Giving the same examination content but not in the same manner or form after several minutes to several years.
|
Measurement of stability & Equivalence
|
Giving the same examination content but not in the same manner or form within the day.
|
Kuder-Richardson
|
Establishment of reliability using KR 21 and KR 20 formulas.
|
6. FAIRNESS
Assessment should give equal opportunities for every student. There should be no discrimination of any kind (racial, age, gender, etc.)
7. AUTHENTICITY
Assessment should touch real life situations and should emphasize practicability.
8. PRACTICALITY & EFFICIENCY
Assessment should save time, money, etc. It should be resourceful.
9. ASSESSMENT IS A CONTINUOUS PROCESS.
Because assessment is an integral part of the teaching-learning process, it should be continuous.
ASSESSMENT FORMS:
| |
PLACEMENT ASSESSMENT
|
Done before instruction to assess the needs of the learners to determine their capacities and capabilities.
|
FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT
|
Done during instruction to monitor students’ progress and to reinforce learning.
|
DIAGNOSTIC ASSESSMENT
|
Done to see the problems and learning difficulties of the students.
|
SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT
|
Done after instruction to assess students’ achievement and to see the result of the teaching-learning process.
|
10. ETHICS IN ASSESSMENT
Assessment should not be used to derogate the students. One example of this is the right to confidentiality.
Assessment's results should be communicated to the learners and the people involved. Communication should also be established between the teacher and the learners by way of pre- and post-test reviews.
Assessment should have a positive effect. It should motivate students to learn and do more and should give way to improve the teacher's instruction.
Subscribe to:
Posts (Atom)